A Review on Engineering Approaches to Reverse Osmosis Brine Management: Disposal, Volume Reduction and Emerging Resource Recovery
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.11113/jamst.v30n1.344Keywords:
Reverse osmosis; desalination; brine management; volume reduction; energy demand; environmental regulationAbstract
Reverse osmosis (RO) desalination generates concentrated brine streams whose management remains a primary technical and regulatory constraint on system performance and sustainability. This review evaluates current and emerging RO brine management strategies with emphasis on operational feasibility, energy demand, and compliance drivers. Conventional disposal options remain dominant in practice but are increasingly limited by discharge regulations and environmental impact. Membrane-based, thermal, and hybrid processes can achieve significant brine volume reduction and support near-zero liquid discharge; however, these gains come with substantial energy penalties, fouling risks, and operational complexity. Resource recovery from seawater RO brines has progressed for major ions such as magnesium, calcium, and bulk salts, yet most pathways remain at laboratory or pilot scale, while recovery of trace elements is constrained by low concentrations, selectivity limits, and unfavorable process economics. Across all advanced options, the lack of long-term performance data, uncertain cost structures, and site-specific regulatory requirements continue to impede scale-up. The review concludes that near-term brine management is best achieved through incremental integration of volume reduction, energy recovery, and compliant discharge within existing treatment trains, rather than through standalone recovery systems.
References
Sirota, R., Winters, G., Levy, O., Marques, J., Paytan, A., Silverman, J., et al. (2024). Impacts of desalination brine discharge on benthic ecosystems. Environmental Science & Technology, 58(13), 5631–5645. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c07748
Lattemann, S. and Höpner, T. (2008). Environmental impact and impact assessment of seawater desalination. Desalination, 220, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.03.009
Fontana, D., Forte, F., Pietrantonio, M., Curcio, E. and Cipollina, A. (2023). Magnesium recovery from seawater desalination brines: a technical review. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25, 13733–13754. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02663-2
Pramanik, B.K., Shu, L. and Jegatheesan, V. (2017). A review of the management and treatment of brine solutions. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 3(4): 625–639. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EW00339G
Tong, T., Xu, L., Horseman, T., Elimelech, M. and Cath, T.Y. (2025). Brine management with zero and minimal liquid discharge. Nature Reviews Clean Technology, 1, 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44359-025-00036-2
Adam, A., Saffaj, N., Mamouni, R. and Gmsarn. (2023). Solar still technology advancements for recycling industrial wastewater with renewable energy: A review. GMSARN International, 17, 436–446
Bello, A.S., Zouari, N., Da’ana, D.A., Hahladakis, J.N. and Al Ghouti, M.A. (2021). An overview of brine management: emerging desalination technologies, life cycle assessment, and metal recovery methodologies. Journal of Environmental Management, 288, 112358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112358
Ojo, O.E. and Oludolapo, O.A. (2025). Innovative recovery methods for metals and salts from rejected brine and advanced extraction processes: A pathway to commercial viability and sustainability in seawater reverse osmosis desalination. Water (Basel), 17(21), 3141. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213141
Backer, S.N., Bouaziz, I., Kallayi, N., Thomas, R.T., Preethikumar, G. and Takriff, M.S. (2022). Brine solution: Current status, future management and technology development. Sustainability, 14(11), 6752. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116752
Rivero Falcón, Á., Peñate Suárez, B. and Melián Martel, N. (2023). SWRO brine characterisation and critical analysis of its industrial valorisation: a case study in the Canary Islands, Spain. Water (Basel), 15(8), 1600. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081600
Omerspahic, M., Al Jabri, H., Siddiqui, S.A. and Saadaoui, I. (2022). Characteristics of desalination brine and its impacts on marine chemistry and health with emphasis on the Persian/Arabian Gulf: A review. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, 845113. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.845113
Lee, C.H., Ho, H.J., Chen, W.S. and Iizuka, A. (2024). Total resource circulation of desalination brine: A review. Advanced Sustainable Systems, 8, e202300460. https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.202300460
Rezaei, L., Alipour, V., Hassani, A.H. and Dehghani Ghantghestani, M. (2024). Environmental health risk of brine disposal for reverse osmosis water desalination plants: a case study in Bandar Abbas city, Iran. Regional Studies in Marine Science, 77, 103606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2024.103606
Banerjee, P., Zaneldin, E.K., Al Marzouqi, A.H. and Ahmed, W.K. (2025). A review of reject brine disposal management and construction applications. Buildings, 15(13), 2317. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132317
Finnerty, C.T.K., Childress, A.E., Hardy, K.M., Hoek, E.M.V., Mauter, M.S., Plumlee, M.H., et al. (2025). The future of municipal wastewater reuse concentrate management: drivers, challenges, and opportunities. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 12(4), 435–444. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c06774
Moon, J., Son, S., Kim, J. and Park, K. (2025). Critical challenges in high salinity seawater reverse osmosis systems: technical, energy, and environmental reviews. Desalination, 607, 118811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2025.118811
Stein, S., Michael, H.A. and Dugan, B. (2021). Injection of desalination brine into the saline part of the coastal aquifer: environmental and hydrological implications. Water Research, 207, 117820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117820
Panagopoulos, A., Haralambous, K.J. and Loizidou, M. (2019). Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies: a review. Science of the Total Environment, 693, 133545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351
Belatoui, A., Bouabessalam, H., Rouane Hacene, O., de la Ossa Carretero, J.A., Martínez García, E. and Sánchez Lizaso, J.L. (2017). Environmental effects of brine discharge from two desalination plants in Algeria, south western Mediterranean. Desalination and Water Treatment, 63, 293–304. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2017.20812
Kenigsberg, C., Abramovich, S. and Hyams Kaphzan, O. (2020). The effect of long term brine discharge from desalination plants on benthic foraminifera. PLoS One, 15(1), e0227589. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227589
Sola, I., Carratalá, A., Pereira Rojas, J., Díaz, M.J., Rodríguez Rojas, F., Sánchez Lizaso, J.L., et al. (2024). Assessment of brine discharges dispersion for sustainable management of SWRO plants on the South American Pacific coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 199, 116905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116905
Nassar, M., Al Hammady, M.A.M. and El Mekawy, H. (2025). Evaluating the environmental impacts of desalination plant brine discharge using marine organisms as bioindicators. Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Biology & Fisheries, 29(3), 1025–1043. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejabf.2025.429350
Sola, I., Santana Anticoy, C., Silva García, R., Pérez Hernández, G., Pereira Rojas, J., Blanco Murillo, F., et al. (2025). Evaluating physicochemical and biological impacts of brine discharges for sustainable desalination development on South America's Pacific coast. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 489, 137464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.137464
Bhatt, M., Singh, S.P. and Shriwastav, A., 2025. Impact characterization of salinity in seawater reverse osmosis brine and preference rankings of potential treatment technologies. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 119667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.119667
Nawrot, T., Alama, K. and Ignatowicz, K., 2018. A case study of a small diameter gravity sewerage system in Zolkiewka Commune, Poland. Water (Basel), 10, 1358. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101358
Swan, K.H., Khaing, T.T., Han, M.J. and Kyaw, K.M. (2023). Comparison of decentralized wastewater treatment systems and centralized systems in Yangon, Myanmar. Sustainability, 15, 16756. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152416756
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2023. Septic systems case studies. EPA Office of Water. Available at: https://www.epa.gov/septic/septic-systems-case-studies
Václavík, V., Kocyan, L. and Dvorský, T. (2025). Sustainable municipal sewerage system solution: a case study of Ropice. Engineering Proceedings, 116(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025116014
Wessler Engineering, 2023. Greentown wastewater treatment and sewer system improvement case studies. Wessler Engineering Resources. Available at: https://www.wesslerengineering.com/resources/case-studies/
Jahnke, C., Wannous, M., Troeger, U., Falk, M. and Struck, U. (2019). Impact of seawater intrusion and disposal of desalination brines on groundwater quality in El Gouna, Egypt, Red Sea area: process analyses by means of chemical and isotopic signatures. Applied Geochemistry, 102, 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2018.11.001
Abd Elaty, I., Shahawy, A.E.L., Santoro, S., Curcio, E. and Straface, S. (2021). Effects of groundwater abstraction and desalination brine deep injection on a coastal aquifer. Science of the Total Environment, 795, 148928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148928
Embaby, A., Ahmed, A., Mahran, T., El Sayed, A. and Masoud, A. (2023). Effects of groundwater abstraction and desalination brine injection on a Middle Miocene aquifer of the El Dabaa area, northern coast of Egypt. Sohag Journal of Sciences, 8(1), 41–46. https://doi.org/10.21608/sjsci.2022.171452.1042
Hussien, R.A.A., Hagagg, K., Rayan, R.A. and El Aassar, A.H. (2022). Groundwater modeling to study brine disposal impact from a desalination plant in the Sharm El Sheikh area, South Sinai, Egypt. Desalination and Water Treatment, 262, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2022.28507
Touati, K. and Mulligan, C.N., 2024. Energy consumption and energy efficiency of high-pressure reverse osmosis: Effect of water recovery, number of stages, and energy recovery. Applied Energy, 360, 125270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.125270
Wu, J. and Hoek, E.M.V. (2025). Current opportunities and challenges in membrane based brine management. Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, 47, 101079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coche.2024.101079
Skuse, C., Gallego-Schmid, A., Azapagic, A. and Gorgojo, P. (2020). Can emerging membrane-based desalination technologies replace reverse osmosis? Desalination, 500, 114844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114844
Shalaby, S.M., Zayed, M.E., Hammad, F.A., Menesy, A.S. and Abd Elbar, A.R. (2024). Recent advances in membrane distillation hybrids for energy efficient process configurations: technology categorization, operational parameters identification, and energy recovery strategies. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 175, 108605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.07.098
Campione, A., Gurreri, L., Ciofalo, M., Micale, G., Tamburini, A. and Cipollina, A. (2018). Electrodialysis for water desalination: A critical assessment of recent developments on process fundamentals, models and applications. Desalination, 434, 121–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.12.044
O’Connell, M.G., Rajendran, N. and Elimelech, M., 2024. Analysis of energy, water, land, and cost implications of zero and minimal liquid discharge desalination technologies. Nature Water, 2, 1116–1127. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-024-00327-1
Felix, V., Hardikar, M., & Hickenbottom, K. L. (2023). Concentrate circularity: A comparative techno-economic analysis of membrane distillation and conventional inland concentrate management technologies. Desalination, 117213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.117213
Adham, S., Minier-Matar, J., & Hussain, A. (2023). Pilot plant evaluation of membrane distillation for desalination of high-salinity brines. Applied Water Science, 13, 233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-023-02017-x
Panagopoulos, A. (2022). Techno-economic assessment and feasibility study of a zero liquid discharge (ZLD) desalination hybrid system in the Eastern Mediterranean. Chemical Engineering and Processing – Process Intensification, 109029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2022.109029
Bartholomew, T. V., Siefert, N. S., & Mauter, M. S. (2018). Cost optimization of osmotically assisted reverse osmosis. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(20), 11813–11821. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b02771
Al-Obaidani, S., Curcio, E., Macedonio, F., Di Profio, G., Al-Hinai, H., & Drioli, E. (2008). Potential of membrane distillation in seawater desalination: Thermal efficiency, sensitivity study and cost estimation. Journal of Membrane Science, 323(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2008.06.006
Gingerich, D. B., Grol, E., & Mauter, M. S. (2018). Fundamental challenges and engineering opportunities in flue gas desulfurization wastewater treatment at coal-fired power plants. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 4, 909–925. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EW00264A
Rolf, J., Cao, T., Huang, X., Boo, C., Li, Q., & Elimelech, M. (2022). Inorganic scaling in membrane desalination: Models, mechanisms, and characterization methods. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(12), 7484–7511. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c01858
Liu, Q., Xu, G.-R., & Das, R. (2019). Inorganic scaling in reverse osmosis (RO) desalination: Mechanisms, monitoring, and inhibition strategies. Desalination, 468, 114065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.07.005
Myśliwiec, D., Szcześ, A., & Chibowski, S. (2016). Influence of static magnetic field on the kinetics of calcium carbonate formation. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 35, 400–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.01.026
Matin, A., Rahman, F., Shafi, H. Z., & Zubair, S. M. (2019). Scaling of reverse osmosis membranes used in water desalination: Phenomena, impact, and control; future directions. Desalination, 455, 135–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.12.009
Bush, J. A., Vanneste, J., Gustafson, E. M., Waechter, C. A., Jassby, D., Turchi, C. S., & Cath, T. Y. (2018). Prevention and management of silica scaling in membrane distillation using pH adjustment. Journal of Membrane Science, 554, 366–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MEMSCI.2018.02.059
Antony, A., Low, J. H., Gray, S., Childress, A. E., Le-Clech, P., & Leslie, G. (2011). Scale formation and control in high pressure membrane water treatment systems: A review. Journal of Membrane Science, 383, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2011.08.054
Wang, Q., Liang, F., Al-Nasser, W., Al-Dawood, F., Al-Shafai, T., Al-Badairy, H., Shen, S., & Al-Ajwad, H. (2018). Laboratory study on efficiency of three calcium carbonate scale inhibitors in the presence of EOR chemicals. Petroleum, 4, 375–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petlm.2018.03.003
Hasson, F., & Keeney, S. (2011). Enhancing rigour in the Delphi technique research. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 78, 1695–1704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2011.04.005
Sun, Y., Xiang, W., & Wang, Y. (2009). Study on polyepoxysuccinic acid reverse osmosis scale inhibitor. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(09)60041-3
Hoch, A. R., Reddy, M. M., & Aiken, G. R. (2000). Calcite crystal growth inhibition by humic substances with emphasis on hydrophobic acids from the Florida Everglades. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 64, 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00179-9
Shih, W. Y., Rahardianto, A., Lee, R. W., & Cohen, Y. (2005). Morphometric characterization of calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) scale on reverse osmosis membranes. Journal of Membrane Science, 252, 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2004.12.023
Chauhan, K., Kumar, R., Kumar, M., Sharma, P., & Chauhan, G. S. (2012). Modified pectin-based polymers as green antiscalants for calcium sulfate scale inhibition. Desalination, 305, 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.07.042
Zhao, Y., Jia, L., Liu, K., Gao, P., Ge, H., & Fu, L. (2016). Inhibition of calcium sulfate scale by poly(citric acid). Desalination, 392, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2016.04.010
Khormali, A., Sharifov, A. R., & Torba, D. I. (2018). Increasing efficiency of calcium sulfate scale prevention using a new mixture of phosphonate scale inhibitors during waterflooding. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 164, 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2018.01.055
Cao, B., Ansari, A., Yi, X., Rodrigues, D. F., & Hu, Y. (2018). Gypsum scale formation on graphene oxide modified reverse osmosis membrane. Journal of Membrane Science, 552, 132–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.02.005
Liu, Q., Xu, G.-R., & Das, R. (2019). Inorganic scaling in reverse osmosis (RO) desalination: Mechanisms, monitoring, and inhibition strategies. Desalination. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.07.005
Mitrouli, S. T., Kostoglou, M., & Karabelas, A. J. (2016). Calcium carbonate scaling of desalination membranes: Assessment of scaling parameters from dead-end filtration experiments. Journal of Membrane Science, 510, 293–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.02.061
Benecke, J., Rozova, J., & Ernst, M. (2018). Anti-scale effects of select organic macromolecules on gypsum bulk and surface crystallization during reverse osmosis desalination. Separation and Purification Technology, 198, 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2016.11.068
Shmulevsky, M., Li, X., Shemer, H., Hasson, D., & Semiat, R. (2017). Analysis of the onset of calcium sulfate scaling on RO membranes. Journal of Membrane Science, 524, 299–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.11.055
Horseman, T., Yin, Y., Christie, K. S., Wang, Z., Tong, T., & Lin, S. (2021). Wetting, scaling, and fouling in membrane distillation: State-of-the-art insights on fundamental mechanisms and mitigation strategies. ACS ES&T Engineering, 1, 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.0c00025
Gilron, J., Ladizansky, Y., & Korin, E. (2013). Silica fouling in direct contact membrane distillation. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 52(31), 10521–10529. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie400265b
Tun, C. M., Fane, A. G., Matheickal, J. T., & Sheikholeslami, R. (2005). Membrane distillation crystallization of concentrated salts—Flux and crystal formation. Journal of Membrane Science, 257(1–2), 144–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2004.09.051
Zheng, L., Zhong, H., Wang, Y., Duan, N., Ulbricht, M., Wu, Q., Van der Bruggen, B., & Wei, Y. (2024). Mixed scaling patterns and mechanisms of high-pressure nanofiltration in hypersaline wastewater desalination. Water Research, 250, 121023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.121023
Amusat, O. O., Atia, A. A., Dudchenko, A. V., & Bartholomew, T. V. (2024). Modeling framework for cost optimization of process-scale desalination systems with mineral scaling and precipitation. ACS ES&T Engineering, 4(5), 1028–1047. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.3c00537
Milne, N. A., O'Reilly, T., Sanciolo, P., Ostarcevic, E., Beighton, M., Taylor, K., Mullett, M., & Tarquin, A. J. (2014). Chemistry of silica scale mitigation for RO desalination with particular reference to remote operations. Water Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.07.010
Bai, S., Han, J., Ao, N., Ya, R., & Ding, W. (2024). Scaling and cleaning of silica scales on reverse osmosis membrane: Effective removal and degradation mechanisms utilizing gallic acid. Chemosphere, 352, 141427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141427
Guo, R., Zhang, J., Mufanebadza, T. N., Tian, X., Xie, L., & Zhao, S. (2023). Silicic acid removal by metal-organic frameworks for silica-scale mitigation in reverse osmosis. Membranes, 13(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13010078
Davenport, D. M., Ritt, C. L., Verbeke, R., Dickmann, M., Egger, W., Vankelecom, I. F. J., & Elimelech, M. (2020). Thin film composite membrane compaction in high-pressure reverse osmosis. Journal of Membrane Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118268
Wu, J., Jung, B., Anvari, A., Im, S., Anderson, M., Zheng, X. (R.), Jassby, D., Kaner, R. B., Dlamini, D., Edalat, A., & Hoek, E. M. V. (2022). Reverse osmosis membrane compaction and embossing at ultra-high pressure operation. Desalination. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.115875
Schantz, A. B., Xiong, B., Dees, E., Moore, D. R., Yang, X., & et al. (2018). Emerging investigators series: Prospects and challenges for high-pressure reverse osmosis in minimizing concentrated waste streams. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ew00137e
Lim, Y. J., Nadzri, N., Lai, G. S., & Wang, R. (2024). Demystifying the compaction effects of TFC polyamide membranes in the desalination of hypersaline brine via high-pressure RO. Journal of Membrane Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.122950
Pendergast, M. T. M., Nygaard, J. M., & Hoek, E. M. V. (2010). Using nanocomposite materials technology to understand and control reverse osmosis membrane compaction. Desalination. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.06.008
Wu, J., Xiao, M., Wang, X., Tang, R., Soares, K., Manio, J., Chen, Y., Elimelech, M., & Hoek, E. M. V. (2025). Embossing-free permeate carrier for ultrahigh pressure reverse osmosis. Environmental Science & Technology, 59(48), 26261–26270. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c10473
Kleffner, C., Braun, G., & Antonyuk, S. (2019). Influence of membrane intrusion on permeate-sided pressure drop during high-pressure reverse osmosis. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 42(3), 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1002/cite.201800104
de Roever, E. W. F., Fazel, M., & Hallsby, A. (2016). Permeate spacer imprints on SWRO membranes: Evidence for intrusion and compaction. Desalination and Water Treatment, 57(6), 2573–2581. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289117849_Permeate_Spacer_Imprints_on_SWRO_Membranes_Evidence_for_Intrusion_and_Compaction
Camacho, L. M., Dumée, L., Zhang, J., Li, J.-d., Duke, M., Gomez, J., & Gray, S. (2013). Advances in Membrane Distillation for Water Desalination and Purification Applications. Water, 5(1), 94-196. https://doi.org/10.3390/w5010094
Chen, Y., Wang, Z., Jennings, G. K., & Lin, S. (2017). Probing pore wetting in membrane distillation using impedance: Early detection and mechanism of surfactant-induced wetting. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 4(11), 505–510. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.7b00372
Yan, Z., Jiang, Y., Liu, L., Li, Z., Chen, X., Xia, M., Fan, G., & Ding, A. (2021). Membrane distillation for wastewater treatment: A mini review. Water, 13(24), 3480. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243480
Coolidge, C., Alhadidi, A. M. H., Wang, W., & Tong, T. (2024). Effects of surfactant properties on pore wetting of membrane distillation. Membrane Letters, 4, 100077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memlet.2024.100077
Chang, H., Zhu, Y., Huang, L., Yan, Z., Qu, F., & Liang, H. (2023). Mineral scaling induced membrane wetting in membrane distillation for water treatment: Fundamental mechanism and mitigation strategies. Water Research, 240, 120807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.120807
Liu, J., Wang, Y., Li, S., Li, Z., Liu, X., & Li, W. (2022). Insights into the wetting phenomenon induced by scaling of calcium sulfate in membrane distillation. Water Research, 213, 118282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.118282
Wang, P., Cheng, W., Zhang, X., Liu, Q., Li, J., Ma, J., & Zhang, T. (2022). Membrane scaling and wetting in membrane distillation: Mitigation roles played by humic substances. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(5), 3258–3266. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c07294
Christie, K. S. S., Yin, Y., Lin, S., & Tong, T. (2020). Distinct behaviors between gypsum and silica scaling in membrane distillation. Environmental Science & Technology, 54(1), 568–576. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b06023
Tan, Y. Z., Alias, N. H., Aziz, M. H. A., Jaafar, J., Othman, F. E. C., & Chew, J. W. (2023). Progress on improved fouling resistance-nanofibrous membrane for membrane distillation: A mini-review. Membranes, 13(8), 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13080727
Chang, H., Liu, B., Zhang, Z., Pawar, R., Yan, Z., Crittenden, J. C., & Vidic, R. D. (2021). A critical review of membrane wettability in membrane distillation from the perspective of interfacial interactions. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(3), 1395–1418. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c05454
Huang, Y.-X., Wang, Z., Jin, J., & Lin, S. (2017). Novel Janus membrane for membrane distillation with simultaneous fouling and wetting resistance. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(22), 13304–13310. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b02848
Zhang, N., Zhang, J., Yang, X., Zhou, C., Zhu, X., Liu, B., Chen, Y., Lin, S., & Wang, Z. (2023). Janus membrane with hydrogel-like coating for robust fouling and wetting resistance in membrane distillation. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 15(15), 19504–19513. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c02781
Jacob, J. P., & Gupta, R. K. (2026). Surfactant-induced wetting dynamics in the context of hypersaline desalination for membrane distillation. Nanoscale horizons, 11(2), 478–487. https://doi.org/10.1039/d5nh00535c
Doguwa, A., Azeem, M. A., Ahmad, H., et al. (2025). Bio-inspired surface engineered multilayer Janus membrane for efficient desalination of highly saline water in membrane distillation. npj Clean Water, 8, 60. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-025-00482-2
Liao, X., Zhang, H., Lim, Y. J., Pan, S., Wang, Y., Chen, J., Dai, R., & Li, C.-p. (2026). Synergy of super-liquid-repellency and nanoscale sieving in a sandwich-architectured Janus membrane for stable membrane distillation of hypersaline wastewater. Water Research, 230, 125410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2026.125410
Elahi, S., Pourafshari Chenar, M., Sabzekar, M., & Ulbricht, M. (2025). Fabrication of durable superhydrophobic polypropylene membrane for hypersaline brine desalination using direct contact membrane distillation. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 117242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.117242
Xie, S., Pang, Z., Hou, C., Wong, N. H., Sunarso, J., & Peng, Y. (2022). One-step preparation of omniphobic membrane with concurrent anti-scaling and anti-wetting properties for membrane distillation. Journal of Membrane Science, 662, 120846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120846
Rezaei, M., Warsinger, D. M., Lienhard, J. H., V., & Samhaber, W. M. (2017). Wetting prevention in membrane distillation through superhydrophobicity and recharging an air layer on the membrane surface. Journal of Membrane Science, 530, 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.02.013
Wenten, I. G., Bazant, M. Z., & Khoiruddin, K. (2024). Mitigating electrodialysis membrane fouling in seawater desalination. Separation and Purification Technology, 319, 127228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.127228
Solonchenko, K., Kirichenko, A., & Kirichenko, K. (2022). Stability of ion exchange membranes in electrodialysis. Membranes, 13(1), 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13010052
Ge, S., Zhang, Z., Yan, H., Irfan, M., Xu, Y., Li, W., Wang, H., & Wang, Y. (2020). Electrodialytic desalination of tobacco sheet extract: Membrane fouling mechanism and mitigation strategies. Membranes, 10(9), 245. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10090245
Lu, L., Zhi-juan, Z., Ya, L., Shao-yuan, S., Xin-min, W., Li-ying, W., & Lin, L. (2015). Research progress in fouling of ion exchange membrane for electrodialysis desalination of industrial wastewater. The Chinese Journal of Process Engineering, 15, 881–891.
Ying, J., Lin, Y., Zhang, Y., Jin, Y., Li, X., She, Q., Matsuyama, H., & Yu, J. (2022). Mechanistic insights into the degradation of monovalent selective ion exchange membrane towards long-term application of real salt lake brines. Journal of Membrane Science, 652, 120446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120446
Liu, H., Ruan, H., Zhao, Y., Pan, J., Sotto, A., Gao, C., van der Bruggen, B., & Shen, J. (2017). A facile avenue to modify polyelectrolyte multilayers on anion exchange membranes to enhance monovalent selectivity and durability simultaneously. Journal of Membrane Science, 543, 310–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.08.072
White, N., Misovich, M., Alemayehu, E., Yaroshchuk, A., & Bruening, M. L. (2016). Highly selective separations of multivalent and monovalent cations in electrodialysis through Nafion membranes coated with polyelectrolyte multilayers. Polymer, 103, 478–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2015.12.019
Kazemabad, M., Verliefde, A., Cornelissen, E. R., & D’Haese, A. (2020). Crown ether containing polyelectrolyte multilayer membranes for lithium recovery. Journal of Membrane Science, 595, 117432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117432
Virga, E., de Grooth, J., Žvab, K., & de Vos, W. M. (2019). Stable polyelectrolyte multilayer-based hollow fiber nanofiltration membranes for produced water treatment. ACS Applied Polymer Materials, 1(8), 2230–2239. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.9b00503
Cherif, H., Labbaoui, A., Risse, H., Boughanmi, H. and Elfil, H. (2024). Magnesium recovery from brackish water desalination brine and valorization in fertilizer production. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 12(4): 113799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.113799
Lee, C.H., Chen, W.S. and Liu, F.W. (2024). Resource recovery: rubidium recovery from desalination brine through hydrometallurgy techniques. Sustainable Environment Research, 34, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42834-024-00212-2
Kumari, P., Chang, Y.S., Witkamp, G.J., Vrouwenvelder, J.S., Vega, L.F. and Dumée, L.F. (2024). Brine valorization through resource mining and CO₂ utilization in the Middle East: A perspective. Desalination, 574, 117598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.117598
Alrabiah, F.H. and Hicks, A.L. (2025). Unlocking the potential of desalination brine: challenges and opportunities for the circular economy. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 200, 108308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108308
Sharkh, B.A., Al Amoudi, A.A., Farooque, M., Voutchkov, N. and Ghaffour, N. (2022). Seawater desalination concentrate: a new frontier for sustainable mining of valuable minerals. npj Clean Water, 5, 9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-022-00152-4
Bouaziz, I., Takriff, M.S., Atieh, M.A., Shanableh, A., Backer, S.N., Almanassra, I.W., et al. (2024). Sustainable brine management: unlocking magnesium and calcium for improved carbonation in the modified Solvay process. Desalination and Water Treatment, 309, 100526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100526
Vassallo, F., La Corte, D., Cipollina, A., Tamburini, A. and Micale, G. (2021). High purity recovery of magnesium and calcium hydroxides from waste brines. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 86, 931–936. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET2186156
Ahmad, M., Garudachari, B., Al Wazzan, Y., Kumar, R. and Thomas, J.P. (2019). Mineral extraction from seawater reverse osmosis brine of Gulf seawater. Desalination and Water Treatment, 144, 45–56. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2019.23679
Wang, Y., Qin, Y., Wang, B., Jin, J. and Cui, D. (2020). Selective removal of calcium ions from seawater or desalination brine using a modified sodium carbonate method. Desalination and Water Treatment, 174, 123–135. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2020.24828
Nadzri, N., Lim, Y.J., Liao, X., Liang, Y., Goh, K., Liao, Y., et al. 2025. Lithium recovery from seawater desalination brines using ion sieve electrospun nanofibrous membranes: the role of nanofiber design. Chemical Engineering Journal, 513, 162886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.162886
Yu, H., Wang, C., Phuntsho, S., He, T., Naidu, G., Han, D.S. and Shon, H.K. (2025). Highly selective lithium recovery from seawater desalination brine using Li₂TiO₃ membrane coated capacitive deionization. Water Research, 285, 124113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.124113
Luo, Y., Chen, Q. and Shen, X. (2019). Complexation and extraction investigation of rubidium ion by calixcrown C2mimNTf2 system. Separation and Purification Technology, 227, 115704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.115704
Huang, D., Zheng, H., Liu, Z., Bao, A. and Li, B. (2018). Extraction of rubidium and cesium from brine solutions using a room temperature ionic liquid system containing 18 crown 6. Green Science, 20(2), 40–46. https://doi.org/10.2478/pjct-2018-0021
Elsayd, H.M., Hassan, G.K., Affy, A.A., El Din, M.G. and El Khateeb, M.A. (2025). Multifunctional electrodialysis process to treat hypersaline reverse osmosis brine: producing high value added HCl and NaOH and energy consumption calculation. Environmental Sciences Europe, 37, 121. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-025-01175-w
Fu, R., Wang, H., Yan, J., Li, R., Wang, B., Jiang, C., et al. (2023). Ion injection bipolar membrane electrodialysis realizes over 8 mol per L NaOH conversion from a brine stream. AIChE Journal, 69(1), 18345. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.18345
Jackson, C., Xu, S. and Torres, J.F. (2025). Techno economic analysis of multichannel thermodiffusion for desalination and brine concentration. npj Clean Water, 8, 98. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-025-00528-5
Lee, J. and Lee, S., 2025. Challenges, opportunities, and technological advances in desalination brine mining: A mini review. Advanced Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1, 7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44405-025-00007-y
Jones, E., Qadir, M., van Vliet, M. T. H., Smakhtin, V., & Kang, S.-M. (2019). The state of desalination and brine production: A global outlook. Science of the Total Environment, 657, 1343–1356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.076
Al-Zubari, W., ElSadek, A., & Khadim, M. (2021). Environmental impacts of seawater desalination on the marine environment in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, 27(1). https://scholarworks.uaeu.ac.ae/ejer/vol27/iss1/1
State of Kuwait. (2014). Environmental protection law No. 42 of 2014. FAOLEX Database. https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC142030/
Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs. (2013). Omani environmental regulations international references documents SEU guidance notes. Sohar Environmental Unit.
Sola, I., Sáez, C. A., & Sánchez-Lizaso, J. L. (2021). Evaluating environmental and socio-economic requirements for improving desalination development. Journal of Cleaner Production, 324, 129296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129296
European Parliament and Council. (2008). Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive). Official Journal of the European Union, L164, 19–40. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2008/56/oj
European Parliament and Council. (2000). Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy (Water Framework Directive). Official Journal of the European Communities, L327, 1–73. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2000/60/oj
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2024). National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) regulations. https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-regulations
Rodman, K. E., Cervania, A. A., Budig-Markin, V., Schermesser, C. F., Rogers, O. W., Martinez, J. M., King, J., Hassett, P., Burns, J., Gonzales, M. S., Folkerts, A., Duin, P., Virgil, A. S., Aldrete, M., Lagasca, A., Infanzon-Marin, A., Aitchison, J. R., White, D., Boutros, B. C., & Achilli, A. (2018). Coastal California wastewater effluent as a resource for seawater desalination brine commingling. Water, 10(3), 322. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10030322
California State Water Resources Control Board. (2015). Desalination amendment to the California Ocean Plan. https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/board_info/agendas/2015/may/050615_7_final_draft_desal_amend.pdf
New South Wales Environment Protection Authority. (2022). Water pollution discharge assessments and mixing zone evaluation. https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/water/managing-water- pollution-in-nsw/environment-protection-licensing/water-pollution-discharge-assessments
Australian and New Zealand Governments. (2018). Australian and New Zealand guidelines for fresh and marine water quality: Mixing zones. https://www.waterquality.gov.au/anz-guidelines/resources/key-concepts/mixing-zones
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright of articles that appear in Journal of Applied Membrane Science & Technology belongs exclusively to Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (Penerbit UTM Press). This copyright covers the rights to reproduce the article, including reprints, electronic reproductions, or any other reproductions of similar nature.
